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Fabrication of Polymersomes using Microfluidic Devices (2011)

Julian Thiele

The fabrication of diblock copolymer vesicles, so-called polymersomes, from poly(2-vinylpyridine)-block-poly(ethylene glycol) (P2VP-b-PEG) and poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(lactid acid) (PEG-b-PLA) by means of microfluidics is described. The experiments were performed in microfluidic devices made by soft lithography in poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS). To gain insight into the fluid dynamics in the microfluidic devices, 2D and 3D simulations based on the finite element method (FEM) were performed. This allowed for optimization of the microchannel geometry, and thus precise control over the formation process and properties of the polymersomes, which were extensively characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS), confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and cryo transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM). Two distinct approaches to control the vesicular self-assembly of copolymer molecules into polymersomes were studied: the undirected self-assembly using hydrodynamic flow focusing (HFF) and the directed self-assembly using copolymer-stabilized water/organic solvent/water (W/O/W) double emulsion templates. In the former case, the formation of polymersomes occurred at the interface of a flow-focused, copolymer-loaded solvent stream and a selective solvent in a simple microchannel cross junction. Investigations revealed that the polymersome size is in proportion with the flow rate ratio of polymer solution and the selective solvent; a nucleation and growth model explaining the observed relation between flow conditions and polymersome size was proposed. In the latter case, the formation of polymersomes was directed by W/O/W double emulsions during evaporation of the organic solvent in which the copolymer was dissolved. The formation of vesicles from diblock copolymers in microfluidic devices not only enables continuous fabrication of polymersomes with controlled size and narrow polydispersity (PDI), but also offers the ability to tune the polymersome size over several orders of magnitude from less than 50 nm using HFF to more than 100 micron using double-emulsion templates. To allow for the aforementioned studies, preliminary work focusing on increasing the resistance of PDMS towards swelling due to organic solvents was performed. By using a glass-like coating based on sol-gel chemistry, the swelling of PDMS was decisively decreased. Analyses of coated devices by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) illustrated that the coating could be homogeneously distributed even in complex microfluidic devices as employed for the preparation of double-emulsion templates. To simplify the fabrication of microfluidic devices with patterned wettability as required for the formation of double emulsions, a novel method to spatially pattern the surface properties of microchannels using flow confinement was developed. For a better understanding of the formation of double emulsions, a fundamental investigation of multiple emulsion formation in microfluidic devices in general was performed. Results show that, depending on the number of dripping instabilities present in the device, multiple emulsions can either be formed in a sequence of emulsification steps or in a one-step process. It was furthermore demonstrated that one-step formation of multiple emulsions provides a novel way to create emulsions from liquids, which otherwise cannot be emulsified controllably, such as viscoelastic polymer solutions or liquids exhibiting a low surface tension. Finally, the development of a novel microfluidic spray dryer based on a conventional microfluidic device for forming double emulsions was presented and its application for fabricating drug nanoparticles from hydrophobic active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) was demonstrated.

Documentation and Instruction Manual for the Horizontal Mobile Measuring System (HMMS) (2011)

Jörg Hübner Johannes Olesch Hubert Falke Franz X. Meixner Thomas Foken

Towards the Governance of Open Distributed Grids - A Case Study in Wireless Mobile Grids (2011)

Tina Balke

New networking technologies such as wireless mobile grids and peer-to-peer middleware are examples of a growing class of open distributed systems whose strength is the absence of a central controlling instance and which function through the cooperation of autonomous entities that voluntarily commit resources to a common pool. The social dilemma in such systems is that it is advantageous for rational users to access the common pool resources without making any commitment of their own. This is commonly known as “free-riding”. However, if a substantial number of users followed this selfish strategy, the system itself would fail, depriving all users of its benefits. In this dissertation, we demonstrate how governance decisions can induce cooperation in such systems and how normative frameworks in combination with multi-agent system simulations can be successfully employed to analyse their effects, even at an early development stage. We show that our approach is not only practical and powerful, but also easily accessible. We demonstrate its functionality by implementing a prototype to explore the impact of enforcement mechanisms on wireless mobile grids, a concept which has been proposed to address the energy issues arising in the next generation of mobile phones and the networks that connect them. We also infer lessons from this example for open distributed systems in general. Simulation experiments quantify the benefits of enforcement mechanisms for wireless mobile grids. We analyse these results with respect to the costs of enforcement as well as further criteria that reflect the interests of the multiple stakeholders in the system. We conclude with some observations on how the lessons learned from both process and outcomes may be applicable to the broader context of open distributed systems. In particular, we highlight (i) the use of simulation using intelligent agents and a normative framework as a means for in silico exploration of complex systems for both business and technological objectives, and (ii) the insight offered into a range of enforcement mechanisms and a better understanding of the conditions and constraints under which they are applicable.

Charakterisierung des humanen Proteins MCM8 und seiner Interaktion mit CDC45 (2011)

Linda Holtkamp

In der eukaryotischen und archaealen DNA-Replikation spielen MCM-Proteine eine bedeutende Rolle. Ein heterohexamerer Komplex der Proteine MCM2-7 stellt in eukaryotischen Zellen die replikative Helikase dar, welche den DNA-Doppelstrang entwindet und so für die Replikation durch die DNA-Polymerasen zugänglich macht. In den Archaea übernimmt diese Aufgabe ein homohexamerer MCM-Komplex. Ein weiteres Mitglied der eukaryotischen MCM2-7-Familie ist MCM8. Es gibt Hinweise, dass MCM8 als homohexamere Helikase in der eukaryotischen DNA-Replikation involviert ist, die tatsächliche Funktion des Proteins ist jedoch noch weitgehend unbekannt. Durch Untersuchungen von Tumorgeweben wurde gezeigt, dass humanes MCM8 in den entsprechenden Zellen akkumuliert oder mutiert vorliegt. Dies lässt darauf schließen, dass MCM8 an der Entwicklung von Tumoren beteiligt sein könnte. Für das Verständnis der Krebsentstehung ist daher die Erforschung seiner Funktion von großer Wichtigkeit. Ziel dieser Arbeit war zunächst, ein geeignetes Expressionssystem zu etablieren, in welchem rekombinantes humanes MCM8 löslich exprimiert und aufgereinigt werden kann. Hierfür wurden Expressionsstudien in Escherichia coli, Saccharomyces cerevisiae sowie Sf9- und High-Five-Insektenzellen durchgeführt. In S. cerevisiae konnte keine Expression von MCM8 detektiert werden, da das Protein hier möglicherweise toxisch wirkt. In E. coli konnte MCM8 nach einer Co-Expression mit dem Chaperon E. coli Triggerfakor bei einer Expressionstemperatur von 15°C teilweise löslich exprimiert werden. In Insektenzellen konnte MCM8 sowohl in plasmidbasierter transienter Expression als auch in einer Baculovirus-basierten Expression vollständig löslich exprimiert werden. Das lösliche rekombinante MCM8 wurde mittels Affinitäts-, Heparin- sowie Ionenaustausch- chromatographie aufgereinigt und auf enzymatische Aktivität untersucht. Es war bekannt, dass die anderen MCM-Proteine eine DNA-abhängige ATPase-Aktivität besitzen, und dass diese durch die Mutation eines konservierten Lysinrests im aktiven Zentrum des Proteins ausgeschaltet werden kann. Um eine eventuelle ATPase-Aktivität MCM8 zuordnen zu können, wurde die Aktivität des Wildtyp-Proteins sowie die Aktivität der mutmaßlichen ATPase-Motiv-defekten Mutante MCM8 K460E überprüft. Weder für das in E. coli noch für das in Insektenzellen exprimierten rekombinanten Protein konnte eine ATPase-Aktivität nachgewiesen werden. Auch durch Zugabe von DNA konnte diese Aktivität nicht stimuliert werden. Dies ließ darauf schließen, dass humanes MCM8 alleine in vitro keine enzymatische Aktivität besitzt. Vermutlich benötigt MCM8 wie der MCM2-7-Komplex in vivo Cofaktoren zur Ausübung seiner Funktion. CDC45 und der GINS-Proteinkomplex gelten als essentielle Cofaktoren der Helikase MCM2-7, welche zusammen als CMG-Komplex den DNA-Doppelstrang entwinden. Wenn MCM8 als Helikase in die DNA-Replikation der eukaryotischen Zelle involviert ist, ist eine Interaktion mit CDC45 wahrscheinlich. Daher wurde in dieser Arbeit die Interaktion von MCM8 mit humanem CDC45 nach Co-Expression der rekombinanten Proteine in High Five-Insektenzellen untersucht. Hinweise auf eine Interaktion von MCM8 und CDC45 ergaben sich zunächst durch eine Co-Aufreinigung der rekombinanten Proteine Strep_MCM8 und His_CDC45 mittels Talon- und anschließender Strep-Tactin-Chromatographie, in welchen beide Proteine in beiden Aufreinigungs-schritten co-eluierten. Einen weiteren Hinweis lieferte die Co-elution der Konstrukte MCM8_H10 und CDC45 in einer Gelfiltration. Durch Immunopräzipitation von MCM8_H10 und CDC45 aus High-Five-Zellextrakten, wo beide Proteine mit dem jeweiligen Interaktionspartner co-präzipitierten, konnte gezeigt werden, dass MCM8 und CDC45 in vitro interagieren. Eine in vivo-Interaktion der beiden Proteine wurde in HeLa-Zellen untersucht. Hier ergab sich ein Hinweis auf die Interaktion durch Immunopräzipitationen von CDC45 mit einem MCM8-Antikörper aus Zellextrakten logarithmisch wachsender HeLa-Zellen. Die Untersuchung fraktionierter Zellextrakte synchronisierter HeLa-Zellen lieferte Informationen über den Zeitpunkt und den Ort der Interaktion von MCM8 und CDC45 im Zellzyklus. Es ist bekannt, dass die Proteine MCM2-7 vor allem zu Beginn der Synthese-Phase chromatingebunden vorliegen. Hier konnte gezeigt werden, dass MCM8 und CDC45 gegen Ende der Synthese-Phase und am Übergang der G2- zur Mitose-Phase verstärkt chromatingebunden vorliegen. Dies lässt darauf schließen, dass das humane MCM8 eher in die Elongation als in die Initiation der eukaryotischen DNA-Replikation involviert ist. Es ist ebenfalls denkbar, dass MCM8 eine bisher noch nicht untersuchte regulatorische Funktion besitzt. Die tatsächliche Rolle von MCM8 im eukaryotischen Zellzyklus bleibt weiterhin unklar, bedarf jedoch gerade im Hinblick auf seinen potenziellen Wert als Tumor-Marker weiterer Aufklärung.

Semiconductor Polymer Architectures using Click Chemistry and Controlled Radical Polymerization (2011)

Andreas Lang

Diese Dissertation beschäftigt sich mit der Synthese und Charakterisierung von halbleitenden Seitenkettenpolymeren und –blockcopolymeren für die Anwendung in organischen Photovoltaik-Bauelementen. Besonderer Augenmerk liegt dabei auf der Entwicklung und der Anwendung von modernen Synthesetechniken für die einfache und reproduzierbare Synthese solcher Polymere, auch im größeren Maßstab. Methoden zur kontrollierten radikalischen Polymerisation wie NMRP und RAFT, die zu wohldefinierten Polymeren mit enger Molekulargewichtsverteilung führen können, und ihre Kombination mit polymeranalogen Reaktionen, wie der Kupfer-katalysierten Azid-Alkin Zykloaddition („Klick“ Chemie), wurden erfolgreich dazu verwendet komplexe Polymerarchitekturen zu synthetisieren. Mit dieser Methode sollte ein genereller Ansatz für die Synthese von halbleitenden Seitenkettenpolymeren entwickelt werden. Zwei Arten von Gerüstpolymeren, Poly(Propargylacrylat) und Poly(Propargyloxystyrol), wurden dabei verwendet. „Klick“ Chemie sollte es ermöglichen die thermischen, strukturellen, elektronischen und optischen Eigenschaften des Polymers durch eine modulare Substitution mit unterschiedlichen Halbleiterresten einzustellen. Das thermotrope Phasenverhalten der synthetisierten Polymere analysierten wir umfassend mittels Differentieller Wärmeflusskalorimetrie (DSC), temperaturabhängiger Polarisationsmikroskopie (POM), sowie temperaturabhängiger Röntgendiffraktometrie (XRD). Nanostrukturierte Aggregate wurden mittels Transmissions-Elektronen-Spektroskopie (TEM) und Rasterkraftmikroskopie (AFM) untersucht. Zusammenfassend präsentiert diese Arbeit die umfassende Anwendbarkeit von „Klick“ Chemie und Techniken der kontrollierten radikalischen Polymerisation, wie NMRP und RAFT, für die Synthese von hochkomplexen Halbleiter-Polymerarchitekturen und bildet die Grundlage für eine vereinfachte und hochskalierbare Vorgehensweise für die Synthese von Halbleiterpolymeren und Blockcopolymeren.

A strictly feasible sequential convex programming method (2011)

Sonja Lehmann

In free material optimization (FMO), one tries to find the best mechanical structure by minimizing the weight or by maximizing the stiffness with respect to given load cases. Design variables are the material properties represented by elasticity tensors or elementary material matrices, respectively, based on a given finite element discretization. Material properties are as general as possible, i.e., anisotropic, leading to positive definite elasticity tensors, which may be arbitrarily small in case of vanishing material. To guarantee a positive definite global stiffness matrix for computing design constraints, it is required that all iterates of an optimization algorithm retain positive definite tensors. Otherwise, some constraints, e.g., the compliance, cannot be evaluated and the algorithm fails. FMO problems are generalizations of topology optimization problems. The goal of topology optimization is to find the stiffest structure subject to given loads and a limited amount of material. In contrast to FMO the material is explicitly given and cannot vary. Based on a finite element discretization, in each element it is decided whether to use material or not. The regions with vanishing material are interpreted as void. The resulting optimization problem can be solved by numerous efficient nonlinear optimization methods, for example sequential convex programming methods. Sequential convex programming (SCP) formulates separable and strictly convex nonlinear subproblems iteratively by approximating the objective and the constraints. Lower and upper asymptotes are introduced to truncate the feasible region. Due to the special structure, the resulting subproblems can be solved efficiently by appropriate methods, e.g., interior point methods. To ensure global convergence, a line search procedure is introduced. Moreover, an active set strategy is applied to reduce computation time. The iterates of SCP are not guaranteed to be inside the corresponding feasible region described by the constraints. As a consequence it is not able to solve free material optimization problems as the compliance function is only well-defined on the feasible region of some of the constraints. We propose a modification of a SCP method that ensures feasibility with respect to a given set of inequality constraints. The resulting procedure is called feasible sequential convex programming method (SCPF). SCPF expands the resulting subproblems by additional nonlinear constraints, that are passed to the subproblem directly to ensure their feasibility in each iteration step. They are referred as feasibility constraints. In addition, other constraints may be violated within the optimization process. As globalization technique a line search procedure is used to ensure convergence. The resulting subproblems can be solved efficiently taking the sparse structure into account. Moreover, semidefinite constraints have to be replaced by nonlinear ones, such that SCPF is applicable. SCPF successfully solved FMO problems with up to 120.000 variables and 60.000 constraints. Within a theoretical analysis global convergence of SCPF is shown for convex feasibility constraints.

Iron in oxides, silicates and alloys under extreme pressure-temperature conditions (2011)

Konstantin Glazyrin

(1) There is a general agreement, that magnesium silicate perovskite (Pv) comprises around 80 vol% of the Earth's lower-mantle, making it by volume the most abundant mineral in our planet, and and there is no doubt that Pv in the mantle contains Fe and Al. However, the exact concentrations are unknown, as well as the effect of pressure on physical properties of Pv at conditions of Earth lower mantle. In our study we investigate Pv with one of the less explored substitution Mg2+A+Si4+B→Fe3+A+Al3+B. Here we explore as a function of pressure and temperature the crystal structure of the material, the distribution of chemical elements between different crystallographic sites and the evolution the spin state of ferric iron, as one of crucial parameters determining electrical and radiative conductivity of the Earth's lower mantle. We perform single-crystal x-ray diffraction on magnesium silicate perovskite with the composition Mg0.63Fe0.37Si0.63Al0.37O3 (MgFeAlPv) using a combination of in-situ diamond anvil cell technique and laser heating in order to simulate the extreme conditions of the Earth's lower mantle. We provide a complete description of the behavior of MgFeAlPv in terms of crystal structure and ferric iron occupying its dodecahedral (A-)site. We observe no spin transition of ferric iron at A-site, confirming theoretical predictions and recent experimental observations. However, even upon heating MgFeAlPv samples to 1800 K at ~78 GPa we see no indication of a spin crossover or a pressure/temperature induced redistribution of ferric iron and aluminum between the different crystallographic sites as suggested previously. We combine these data with high pressure-high temperature measurements to obtain a thermal equation of state. (2) As a model Fe-O system, magnetite is a mixed valence iron oxide incorporating both ferric and ferrous iron. Being essential part of some sedimentary (banded iron formations) and igneous rocks, magnetite can be subjected to high pressure in natural systems, for instance, during subduction of oceanic crust, or during serpentinization (metamorphic reaction). In order to shed light on the complex physical properties of magnetite under compression we conducted a combined single crystal x-ray diffraction and Mössbauer spectroscopy at pressures below 25 GPa. We find no evidence for the transition from inverse to normal spinel in magnetite. Analyzing the collected Mössbauer data, we show that a high spin – intermediate spin transition cannot occur in magnetite in the pressure range of 10-20 GPa, and finally, based on a careful analysis of the data and results reported in the literature, we provide a model consistently describing the behavior of electronic and magnetic properties of magnetite in terms of a gradual charge delocalization induced by pressure. (3) Our study of wüstite (FexO) is focused on the high pressure – low temperature phase diagram of the Fe-end member in the (Mg,Fe)O system. We perform high resolution neutron diffraction experiments in order to investigate the low temperature phase diagram of Fe0.925O and Fe0.94O. We determine the critical temperatures of antiferromagnetic ordering (the Neél temperature TN) and structural transitions (TS) of the two compounds. We report divergence of TN and TS as a function of pressure. We argue that a modification of the defect structure in wüstite can be invoked explaining the drastically different response of Fe0.925O and Fe0.94O to compression. With that we show that although ferric iron is a minor structural component of wüstite, it is an essential component of defect structures and induces profound effects on the low temperature phase diagram of wüstite. (3) We investigate effect of pressure (P) on the elastic and electronic properties of Fe, Fe0.9Ni0.1 hcp phases below 70 GPa. After processing our experimental data, we report a gradual decrease in the ratio of the hcp lattice parameters c/a for Fe in the pressure range below 45-50 GPa, and a non-linear behavior of Mössbauer isomer shift for hcp phases of pure Fe and Fe0.9Ni0.1, suggesting an isostructural transition in these phases. We investigate paramagnetic hcp Fe under compression by employing state-of-art calculations (LDA+DMFT) and including many-body correlation effects. Based on the results of the calculations, we predict an electronic topological transition (ETT). After comparing data on materials with already known ETT with our observations and theoretical predictions, we conclude that results obtained from the independent experimental measurements can be explained in the framework of an ETT. (4) The development of a portable laser heating system was a necessary requirement for our work done on minerals at conditions of Earth’s lower mantle in general, and for the study of magnesium silicate perovskite containing iron and aluminum in particular. The main advantages of the system developed are compactness, versatility for different in-house and synchrotron based techniques, including high pressure measurements of resistivity, Raman spectroscopy, energy and time-resolved Mössbauer spectroscopy, powder and single crystal x-ray diffraction, nuclear inelastic x-ray scattering, and x-ray absorption. These advantages, the low times of assembly, stable and homogeneous conditions for heating, in-situ measurement of sample temperature, as well as the direct visual control over the heating area distinguish our system from similar, but bulkier devices.

Synthesis, Characterization, and Properties of Tailored Functional Block Copolymers (2011)

Robin Pettau

This thesis covers the design, synthesis, characterization, and application of functional block copolymers (BCP) based on a polymer analogous approach and includes three main subjects. The first subject is the implementation of a specially constructed reactor setup for sequential anionic polymerization that allows parallel block copolymer synthesis based on one identical A-block on a lab scale. For this reason, this setup facilitates the preparation of block copolymer series in a combinatorial fashion. It consists of one main reactor and three secondary reactors with individual temperature control. The addition of monomers or additives to each reactor can be handled separately. AB diblock copolymer and ABC triblock copolymer series were prepared with different lengths of the final block as well as different chemical structures of the last block. The second subject covers the synthesis, characterization, processing and application of new liquid crystalline azobenzene-containing block copolymers designed as materials for holographic data storage. Therefore, these polymers contained an amorphous, optical inert poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) or polystyrene (PS) matrix and a functional segment based on polyhydroxystyrene (PHS). Different lengths of flexible spacers and/or mixtures of two spacer lengths were employed to connect the mesogenic chromophores to the polymer backbone. The structure-property relation of functionalized BCPs and the resulting mesophase was investigated. Holographic experiments were conducted on selected examples of the photo-addressable polymers. Smectic annealed samples or amorphous quenched samples were obtained by different sample preparation methods to investigate the influence of the liquid crystalline order. While the initial sensitivity to light induced orientation of the polymer systems remained unaffected, the writing times and level of postdevelopment were improved for quenched samples. Variation in spacer lengths resulted in decreasing smectic order with decreasing spacer length as well as for mixtures of two different spacer lengths promoting lower writing times in the holographic experiments. Additionally, the temperature dependence of the temporal evolution of the refractive index modulation in the smectic polymers was studied. A significant decrease of writing times and an enhancement of the postdevelopment were revealed at elevated temperatures. Stable holographic gratings could be obtained even at 100 °C. 1.1 mm thick samples, that are a prerequisite for volume holographic data storage with a high data storage density, were prepared by injection molding of blends of photoaddressable BCPs with PMMA or PS. Preliminary results confirmed the long-term stability of inscribed holographic gratings and demonstrated angular multiplexing of holographic volume gratings. The third subject covers the synthesis and characterization of new cyanobiphenyl-containing ABA triblock copolymers and their application as BCP gelators for the low molecular weight liquid crystal (LC) 4-cyano-4’-(pentyl)biphenyl (5CB). Based on the selective solubility of the A and B blocks in the nematic solvent, ABA triblock copolymers can be used for the thermoreversible gelation of 5CB. To this end, ABA and ABA’ triblock copolymers comprised of PS A-blocks and a cyanobiphenyl-functionalized PHS B-block with a high degree of polymerization were prepared by the combination of anionic polymerization, using two different synthetic routes, and polymer analogous attachment of the mesogens. Series of linear gelators were prepared with variations in B-block length, A-block lengths and star shaped BCPs by coupling linear ABA’ triblock copolymers. Structure-property relations of the cyanobiphenyl-functionalized polymers regarding the mesophase characterization revealed a dependence of solubility in the nematic 5CB on spacer length. A comprehensive study was conducted to investigate the influence of the BCP backbone and architecture on the gelation of 5CB. Oscillating rheology measurements and thermal characterization were employed to investigate the thermoreversible LC gels. Most of the BCP gelators achieved gelation of 5CB at a mass concentration of 5 wt%. The properties of the different gels where compared at this fixed concentration. The influence of the gelator backbone on the gel properties was investigated by comparing different sets of triblock copolymers. While a short functionalized B-block resulted in high network density and, thus, a high elasticity of the gel the length of the A-blocks influenced the node stability. The LC gel using a star-shaped gealtor exhibited a significantly higher elasticity than with the respective linear block copolymer gelator.

Eukaryotic chromosome segregation: New aspects of separase regulation by securin, Cdk1, PP2A and auto-cleavage (2011)

Franziska Böttger

The universal triggering event of eukaryotic chromosome segregation is the proteolytic cleavage of chromosomal cohesin by separase. The activity of this essential but potentially also very dangerous protease must be tightly controlled. Prior to the onset of anaphase separase is kept inactive by association with either securin or cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (Cdk1) in conjunction with cyclin B1. Only when all chromosomes interact properly with the mitotic spindle apparatus does the anaphase promoting complex or cyclosome (APC/C), a multisubunit E3 ligase, mediate the ubiquitylation of securin and cyclin B1. Their subsequent proteasomal degradation then releases active separase. Murine embryonic stem cells, which lack securin and express a Cdk1-resistant phosphorylation site mutant separase are viable. Thus, additional regulations of sister chromatid separation by separase must exist. It was reported that human separase cleaves not only cohesin but also itself and, furthermore, that it interacts with protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A). However, the functions of separase's auto-cleavage and PP2A-interaction remain enigmatic. Moreover, securin was reported to also interact with PP2A but, strangely, with a different isoform of the phosphatase. Thus, the question needs clarification of whether separase or securin or both interact with which isoform of PP2A. In this study, further insights into the relationship between separase auto-cleavage and PP2A binding are presented. Phosphorylation of a serine residue in close proximity to the major cleavage site of separase was found to stimulate auto-cleavage of separase. Interestingly, a quantitative mass-spectrometric approach (SILAC) identified this serine residue as a substrate of separase-bound PP2A. Furthermore, a point mutation within separase was identified, which totally abolishes PP2A binding and which maps to the immediate vicinity of the auto-cleavage sites. Thus, PP2A prevents the auto-cleavage of separase both catalytically and sterically. It could further be shown that non-cleavable separase exhibits increased association with PP2A and that forced cleavage of separase displaces PP2A. Taken together, these results demonstrate that auto-cleavage and PP2A binding constitute two antagonistic mechanisms of separase regulation. Evidence is provided that the interaction of PP2A with securin is indirect and bridged by separase, and that it is the B56- and not the B55-isoform of PP2A which associates with the separase-securin complex. Moreover, free securin is shown to be degraded in early mitosis in a phosphorylation- and APC/C-dependent manner, while separase-associated securin is kept dephosphorylated and, thus, protected by PP2A. Securin levels are frequently increased in tumors. In normal cells, the early removal of excessive securin might later ensure swift separase activation and anaphase onset, thereby contributing to faithful chromosome segregation.

Halogens and trace elements in subduction zones (2011)

Diego Bernini

This thesis concentrates on solubilities and incorporation mechanisms of halogens and trace elements in minerals and aqueous fluids at high temperatures and pressures. The solubility of fluorine and chlorine in upper mantle minerals (forsterite, enstatite and pyrope) and halogen partitioning between aqueous fluids and these minerals were investigated by piston-cylinder experiments at 1100 °C and 2.6 GPa. Chlorine solubility in forsterite, enstatite and pyrope is below the ppm level, and it is independent of fluid salinity. The fluid-mineral partition coefficient of chlorine is 103-106, indicating extreme incompatibility of chlorine in nominally anhydrous silicates. The fluorine solubility in enstatite and pyrope is two orders of magnitude higher than for Cl, with no dependence on fluid salinity. Forsterite dissolves 246-267 ppm up to a fluid salinity of 1.6 wt. % F. At higher fluorine contents in the system, forsterite is replaced by the minerals of the humite group, which host fluorine in the hydroxyl site. The fluid-mineral partition coefficient of fluorine ranges from 101 to 103. Due to the extreme incompatibility of Cl in a peridotite mineral assemblage, fluid flow from a subducting slab through the mantle wedge will lead to more efficient sequestration of H2O (when compared to Cl) into minerals, thus inducing a gradual increase in the fluid salinity. Mass balance calculations reveal that rock-fluid ratios of (1.3-4)∙103 are required to produce the characteristic Cl/H2O signature of primitive arc magmas. This indicates that fluid flow from subducting slabs into the melting regions in the overlying mantle is not confined to narrow channels but it is sufficient to pervasively metasomatize the bulk wedge. Energetics of fluorine incorporation in forsterite and forsterite-humite chemical equilibria were explored in the system Mg2SiO4-MgF2 by first principles computations. The pressure-volume equations of state and ground-state energies were determined for orthorhombic Mg2SiO4-Mg2F4 solutions, fluorine-bearing end-members of the humite group, and sellaite (MgF2). Humite group minerals and sellaite are energetically more stable than their equivalent solid solution compounds, hence they can act as buffers of fluorine solubility in forsterite. Compressibility increases systematically with the F content for both solid solution compounds and stable minerals. Nevertheless, end member solids are systematically less compressible than the respective solid solution compounds. The pressure-volume equations of state, internal energies, configurational and excess properties were used to set up a thermodynamic model of fluorine solubility in forsterite buffered by humite-group minerals up to 1900 K and 12 GPa. Humite is the stable F buffer in the investigated pressure and temperature range. The fluorine solubility in forsterite increases with temperature, from 0.01 ppm F at 500 K up to 0.33 wt. % F at 1900 K and 0 GPa. By contrast, the effect of pressure on the fluorine solubility is small, leading to its minor decrease as pressure rises to 12 GPa. These results demonstrate that partition coefficients of fluorine between forsterite and aqueous fluid (or silicate melt) are expected to increase with increasing temperature and decreasing pressure. When fluids or melts pass through the mantle wedge, fluorine will most efficiently be stored in the high-temperature portions of the wedge, promoting mantle metasomatism beneath the arc, and it will be released when the metasomatized mantle is advected to colder regions or to higher pressures. The mobility of high field strength elements in aqueous fluids in subduction zones was addressed by in-situ zircon solubility measurements in a hydrothermal diamond anvil cell. The zircon solubilities in aqueous fluids at 865-1025 oC and 6-20 kbar buffered by quartz are very low, ranging from 1.0 to 3.3 ppm Zr, and solubilities weakly increase with temperature and pressure. Experimental results were fitted to a density model: , where c is the Zr concentration in the fluid (ppm), T is temperature (K) and rho is the fluid density (g cm-3). Additional experiments have shown that Zr solubility increases with a decrease in silica activity and with the presence of NaCl and albite due to Zr-Cl or alkali-Zr complexing but it still remains very low. Therefore, the low Zr content observed in arc magmas is due to a very low mobility of Zr in aqueous fluid.

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