3 search hits
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Composites of Spherical Polyelectrolyte Brushes and Nanoparticles – Synthesis, Characterization and Their Use in Catalysis
(2011)
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Frank Polzer
- The main objective of this thesis was the synthesis of colloidal stable managanese oxide nanoparticles (MnOxNP) for applications as a catalyst in aqueous solution. Spherical polyelectrolyte brushes (SPBs) with poly(2-trimethyl ammonium ethyl methacrylate chloride) (pTMAEMC) chains were used as support particles to stabilize the MnOxNP by immobilization. In a first step we established and investigated the method of the in situ generation of the MnOxNP within SPBs. It was found that no reducing agent is needed for the reduction of the permanganate precursors and that they do not react with the cationic polymer chains of the SPBs. By a combination of powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and cryogenic TEM (cryoTEM) it was found that the platelet-like MnOxNP are of layered topology built up from MnO6 octahedra denoted as birnessite. The PXRD patterns revealed a disorder along the stacking direction of the single layers of hexagonal sheets. Furthermore, the structure of the composite material observed by TEM strongly differs compared to that in cryoTEM micrographs. The composite material was furthermore analyzed by high resolution TEM (HRTEM) and X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) analysis. The qualitative X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) analysis using reference compounds confirmed the crystallographic similarity of the MnOxNP to a c-disordered birnessite. The local structure of the MnOxNP was investigated by a quantitative extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) analysis that revealed that no significant difference between the MnOxNP@SPB in aqueous solution and in the dried state. In general, the hexagonal sheets of edge-share MnO6 octahedra are compressed along the c-direction, that is, along the stacking direction. Additionally, a new kind of composite material composed of star-shaped pTMAEMC homopolymer and MnOxNP was synthesized and characterized To test the MnOxNP@SPB composite material for its catalytic activity, the oxidation of morin by hydrogen peroxide was established as a model reaction. It could be shown by UV/vis measurements that the rate of the decomposition is highly depending on the ratio between morin and the oxidant H2O2. This finding was modeled by a Langmuir-Hinshelwood reaction mechanism. The study proved the potential application of the composite material as a catalyst especially for water-based catalysis. Furthermore, a detailed kinetic analysis of the reduction of 4-nitrophenol by sodium borohydride using gold and platinum nanoparticles immobilized on SPBs has been conducted. In analogy to the work on the oxidative decomposition of morin, a Langmuir-Hinshelwood model was used for the description of the reaction mechanism. Using this model, the adsorption constants for both reactants as well as the rate constant of the surface reaction could be determined for both noble metal nanoparticles. This showed that the higher catalytic activity of Pt is mainly due to the higher rate constant of the surface reaction. Additionally, the induction period of the reduction of 4-nitrophenol could be assigned to a surface reconstructuring of the nanoparticles due to the adsorption of 4-nitrophenol. Finally, the synthesis of a novel zwitterionic SPB could be realized using aqueous atom transfer radical polymerization. These particles show a surprisingly high colloidal stability in aqueous medium though the poly(2-(methacryloyloxy)ethyl dimethyl-(3-sulfopropyl)ammonium hydroxide) (pMEDSAH) chains are not soluble in pure water. The solution behavior in water was furthermore studied by dynamic light scattering, TEM and cryoTEM proving the collapsed state of the brush layer. The zwitterionic shell undergoes an internal phase separation leading to a surface-near layer whereas only a minor part of the chains reaches further out into the solution. The collapse was explained by the formation of aggregates of monomer units by zwitterionic or hydrophobic interactions. It was shown that the zwitterionic shell swells upon the addition of high amounts of salts and/or upon increasing the temperature due to the presence of an upper critical solution temperature. In conclusion, this thesis presented a new method for the generation and stabilization of MnOxNP of layered topology using cationic SPBs. The mechanism of the in situ generation could be elucidated as well as the microscopic structure of the composite material in the aqueous dispersed state. Using state of the art characterization methods like XAFS, the local environment of the MnOxNP around the Mn absorber could be determined. The catalytic activity of the MnOxNP was studied in detail applying a Langmuir-Hinshelwood model to the catalytic degradation of morin. A similar study gave new insights into the reduction of 4-nitrophenol using noble metal nanoparticles applying a similar model. The synthesis and analysis of zwitterionic SPBs gave important information about their solution behavior.
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Structure and dynamics of new intelligent copolymer hydrogels and hydrogel nanoparticle hybrids
(2011)
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Yvonne Hertle
- Polymeric gels consist of a chemically or physically crosslinked polymer network swollen with a certain amount of solvent and most of these gels show an ability of reversible swelling or shrinking due to small changes in their environment (as changes in pH, temperature or electric field). In the group of hydrogels, poly(N isopropylacrylamide) (poly(NIPAM)) crosslinked with N,N' methylene-bisacrylamide (BIS) is the most well-known member of the class of thermoresponsive "smart" polymers. This work covers the characterization of thermoresponsive poly(NIPAM) gels an shows different kinds of possibilities tuning their properties. The first part of this thesis presents different methods for the preparation of crosslinker gradient macroscopic gels with the dimensions of some cubic centimetres. The swelling behaviour from different zones of the macrogel with a varying crosslinker content was studied as a function of temperature. Furthermore, the internal dynamics of a poly(NIPAM-co-butenoic acid) copolymer macrogel was investigated by neutron spin echo and compared to the results for a chemically identical microgel. Due to the different preparation conditions of the macro- and microgel, a difference in the collective diffusion of the network was expected. Beside this, copolymer microgel particles based on NIPAM and N tert butylacrylamide (NtBAM) were synthesized. The particle size and the swelling behaviour of the obtained colloidal microgels was characterized with respect to the content of the comonomer using different scattering techniques and electron microscopy. In addition, an attempt was made to describe theoretically the temperature induced deswelling with the Flory-Rehner theory. The latter part of this thesis focuses on hybrid materials based on magnetic nanoparticles and thermoresponsive microgels. First of all, different approaches for the synthesis of cobalt and nickel nanoparticles and their protection against oxidation were made. Furthermore, these magnetic particles were incorporated as an inorganic core in poly(NIPAM) core-shell systems, as well as randomly distributed particles within the gel network.Polymergele sind aus chemisch oder physikalisch vernetzten Polymerketten aufgebaut und weisen dabei, bedingt durch ihre Netzwerkstruktur, ein Quellverhalten auf. Die meisten Vertreter dieser Klasse zeigen zusätzlich durch kleine Veränderungen in ihrer Umgebung, wie eine Änderung des pH-Wertes, der Temperatur oder eines elektrischen Feldes, eine reversible Volumenänderung. Das wohlbekannteste Mitglied der sogenannten thermoresponsiven, "intelligenten" Gele ist ein Hydrogel auf der Basis von N,N' Methylenbisacrylamid-vernetztem Poly(N Isopropylacrylamid) (Poly(NIPAM)). Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit den charakteristischen Eigenschaften von thermoresponsiven Gelen auf Basis von Poly(NIPAM) und den vielfältigen Möglichkeiten diese Eigenschaften gezielt zu steuern. Im ersten Teil der Arbeit werden unterschiedliche Methoden zur Herstellung von Makrogelen basierend auf Poly(NIPAM) mit einem Quervernetzergradient entwickelt, wobei die hier synthetisierten Gele eine Größe von einigen Kubikzentimetern aufweisen. Für eine anschließende Charakterisierung des Quellverhaltens wurde das Quellverhältnis alpha in Abhängigkeit von der Temperatur für unterschiedliche Bereiche des Makrogels bestimmt. Die so erhaltenen Quellkurven konnten dann anhand des Quellvermögens den jeweiligen Bereichen mit unterschiedlichem Quervernetzergehalt zugeordnet werden. Zusätzlich wurde die interne Dynamik eines Poly(NIPAM-co-Butensäure) Copolymer-Makrogels mit Hilfe von Neutronen Spin-Echo Experimenten analysiert. Die durch die Messungen erhaltenen Ergebnisse konnten mit denen chemisch-identischer Mikrogele verglichen werden. Dabei wurde aufgrund der unterschiedlichen Synthesebedingungen von Makro- und Mikrogelen ein Unterschied in der kollektiven Netzwerkdiffusion erwartet. Der gefundene Unterschied in der Netzwerkdynamik war allerdings geringer als erwartet und liegt im Bereich von etwa 10%. Ein weiterer Teil der vorliegenden Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Synthese von Mikrogel-Copolymeren auf Basis von NIPAM und N-tert-Butylacrylamid (NtBAM). Mit Hilfe unterschiedlicher Streumethoden, sowie durch Elektronenmikroskopie, wurde sowohl Partikelgröße, als auch Quellverhalten der erhaltenen kolloidalen Mikrogele charakterisiert. Dabei galt es zu bestimmen, welchen Einfluss der Comonomergehalt auf die Eigenschaften des Mikrogels hat. Weiterhin wurde das thermoresponsive Quellen des Gelnetzwerks mit den Vorhersagen der Flory-Rehner Theorie verglichen. Hybridmaterialien aus magnetischen Nanopartikeln und thermoresponsiven Poly(NIPAM) Mikrogelen werden im letzten Teil der Arbeit vorgestellt. Zuerst wurden unterschiedliche Syntheseansätze für Cobalt- und Nickel-Nanopartikel, sowie deren Schutz vor Oxidation, verfolgt. Des Weiteren wurde ein Kern-Schale System angestrebt, in welchem die magnetischen Partikel als Kern vorliegen. Zum anderen wurde beabsichtigt, eine statistische Verteilung der Nanopartikel im Gelnetzwerk zu erreichen.
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Ordering of Nanoparticles by Wrinkle-Assisted Self-Assembly : Controlling Plasmonic Coupling Effects
(2011)
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Alexandra Schweikart
- Structures of spatial scale between 10Å and 1000Å are known as nanomaterials and have attracted immense interest over the last decades (Nobel Prize in physics in 2010 was awarded for the nanomaterial graphene). Materials within this scale show a large surface-to-volume ratio and amplify surface-related properties. Governing and manipulating material on this almost atomic level is one of the most active fields in modern natural science. Nanoscale technology, such as some of the processes involved in steel production and painting, has been empirically utilized in human society for centuries, however, a scientific investigation of phenomena on this spatial scale only began in 1857 when Michael Faraday reported on the synthesis and colors of gold colloids. In 1959 interest in the nanoscale was stimulated by an American physicist, Richard Feynman, in his famous “There’s plenty of room at the bottom” address, and the term nanotechnology first appeared in 1974 from the Japanese Norio Tanigucho. Since these pioneering works, thousands of publications have been focused on the synthesis, modification, properties and assembly of nanoparticles. Great progress has been attained in the preparation of nanoparticles of any desired size, shape and composition. Metal nanoparticles are particularly attractive due to their spectacular size and shape dependent optical and electronic properties. Color variations of nanoparticle suspension for example arise from changes in the composition, size and shape of nanoparticles, as well as from the proximity of other metal nanoparticles. The average distances of nanoparticles in thin films influence the spectral features because of inter-nanoparticle coupling. These effects are often the result of changes in the so-called surface Plasmon resonance, the frequency at which conduction electrons oscillate in response to the alternating electric field. Provided nanoparticles form ordered arrays, they can additionally have unique and fascinating optical properties because of photonic band gap effects with potential applications such as detectors, circuits, light sources, polymeric opals or meta-materials. The present work deals with the controlled placement of nanoparticles by physical con-straints. Exact placement of nanoparticles allows for the control of the inter-nanoparticle distance and thus determines the coupling effects (here: Plasmon coupling) which arise upon interaction with electromagnetic radiation. Different coupling leads to different distance-dependent signals and such substrates can serve as sensors if, for example, Raman spectroscopy is carried out for detection of the signal. Currently, most templates are created using lithographic techniques. Particularly if structures on the sub-micron scale are desired, electron beam lithography has to be used which involves environmentally harmful etching processes. Within this work we show how controlled wrinkling of a thin rigid film on a soft, elastomeric substrate, can be used as an alternative to fabricate nano-templates without using any lithography. As a substrate, a silicon elastomer poly (dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) was used. Upon stretching such substrates uniaxially, an enlarged surface was exposed to oxygen plasma and converted to silica by oxidation. After releasing the strain, periodic wrinkles appeared perpendicular to the applied strain. Under defined conditions, such wrinkles have a regular sinusoidal topology featuring a single dominant wavelength and amplitude. The formation process could easily be tuned by tuning the plasma exposure to generate periodically structured templates between few hundreds of nanometers and several microns. In this work, wrinkled templates were tailored such that suitably sized nanoparticles could be arbitrarily assembled into a hierarchical structure by drying colloids out of suspension in a channel-like confinement offered by wrinkles in contact with a flat substrate. Using the same template geometry (same wavelength and amplitude of wrinkles) but different particle concentration of spherical polystyrene beads (r = 55nm) we found parallel particle-structures ranging from single parallel lines at low particle concentration to dense prismatic ridges at high particle concentration. The wavelength of the wrinkled template defined the spacing between the particle lines. Moreover, we performed Monte Carlo (MC) computer simulations in collaboration with the theoretical physics department (Prof. Dr. Matthias Schmidt and Dr. Andrea Fortini) at the Uni-versity of Bayreuth to assess the dominant driving forces during the assembly process. Be using MC, colloidal particle assemblies can be characterized in terms of their equilibrium configuration that minimizes the free energy. Simulations were performed on particles in a box delimited by a flat hard wall and a sinusoidal hard wall according to our experimental system. These simulations precisely predicted the exact assembled geometry in thermal equilibrium. Comparing results of simulation and experiment we found perfect agreement between the equilibrium structures. We discovered the confinement itself to be mainly responsible for the assembled morphology of nanoparticle, which makes the process independent of the detailed chemistry of particles. In addition we obtained very similar structures with the same assembly strategy but using gold nanoparticles (r = 33 nm) instead of polymeric particles. We fabricated lines of gold nanoparticles assembled in a single file and lines two particles wide using similar particle concentration but different sizes of the confinement template. The different morphologies of the lines give rise to different optical signals as collective oscillation of conduction electrons result in different interaction with electromagnetic radiation. Surface Plasmon resonance due to Plasmon coupling between adjacent particles arises. Different morphology-dependent signals of nanoparticles in contact within the lines were detected by surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS). The electromagnetic field was measured to be randomly distributed along the particle lines with strong enhancements at so-called hot spots located at gaps between neighboring nano-particles. To confirm the measured signal we compared theoretical simulations using the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method and experimentally measured dark-field spectroscopy signal along differently shaped lines of particles within a collaboration with Weihai Ni and Dr. Ramón Alvarez-Puebla at the University of Vigo in Spain. Good agreement between theory and experiment indicated that indeed plasmonic coupling of the individual nanoparticles is responsible for the observed SERS effects: Using wrinkle-assisted self-assembly it is possible to control the organization of the colloidal particles on the substrate, with a consequent control over the formation of hot spots and the resulting SERS intensity. Such ordered multiplicities of hot spots give rise to quantitative SERS signals with high sensitivity which has applications as diverse as biological detectors, optical filters and sensors. In addition, this work deals with chemical modification of the wrinkled structure to render it accessible to different solvents as PDMS tends to swell in organic solvents and suffers from poor mechanical stability. Additionally, wrinkles fabricated through a buckling instability of a stiff supported layer under compression are not tension free on the microscopic level and suffer from relaxation on a longer time scale. We introduce in this work two different methods to replicate wrinkles by molding. In micro thermoforming, the wrinkled surface was used as a mold (or caliber) to structure different kinds of polymers (polystyrene and poly (methylmethacrylate)) by pressing the originally wrinkled structure onto a ductile material which preserves the nanostructure after curing. The second methodology was carried out in collaboration with PD. Dr. Kerstin Koch and Michael Bennemann at the Nees institute in Bonn and employed a two-step molding process, where wrinkles were molded against wax and in a second step, the structured wax was cast against epoxy resin. Both methods revealed perfect copies of the wrinkled original with high fidelity even at dimensions as small as a few hundred nanometers and hold no residual stresses because there is only one component. Wrinkles made of tough polymers are now accessible to various solvents which make them potential substrates for microfluidics. In the last part of this work, wrinkles are used as stamps in so-called micro contact printing (µCP). In this technique, a structured elastomeric stamp is used to transfer a surface-active molecule out of solution to a flat substrate by mechanical contact. Patterns of different charge density can be created which have applications in the field of biosensors, diagnostic immunoassays and cell culturing. Traditionally, stamps for µCP are prepared by a two step process where a lithographically fabricated structured silicon master serves as mold. An elastomeric polymer is cast against the caliber and preserves the structure after curing and detaching. As already mentioned lithography is expensive and involves environmentally harmful etching processes. Within this work we introduce the one step wrinkling process to fabricate structured stamps. Even though the diversity of stamp geometries created by wrinkling is limited, the simplicity compared to lithographic techniques is evident. The process of wrinkle formation includes plasma oxidation, which renders the topmost surface hydrophilic. Therefore, charged macromolecules out of aqueous solution were adsorbed onto the surface. The coated relief structure was used as a stamp to transfer the molecules selectively from the elevated parts of the wrinkles to another flat, oppositely charged surface by means of µCP. The topography of the resulting pattern was characterized by Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) imaging as alternating charged pattern of printed (elevated) and non-printed areas. By varying the geometry of the wrinkled stamp (amplitude and wavelength) we studied the limits in which successful µCP with wrinkles can be carried out. We found the limits for wavelength of the wrinkles below 355nm and amplitudes below 40nm at which the printed structure disappeared because material was transferred from the wrinkles’ hills as well as from the bottom parts. The height of the transferred structure increase with increasing wavelength and amplitude of the wrinkles but tended to a limit of 6-7nm, even though the topology of the stamp increases. The smallest structure found in lateral dimensions was as small as 50nm, appearing as areas where no material was transferred.
