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Impact of extreme hydrological conditions on belowground carbon cycling and redox dynamics in peat soils from a northern temperate fen (2012)

Cristian Estop Aragonés

Peatlands have an important role in the global carbon cycle and constitute the largest pool of carbon stored in terrestrial ecosystems due to their disproportionally high areal soil carbon density. This globally relevant carbon stock is the result of a process mostly initiated after the last glaciation period. A key factor for this long term carbon accumulation is the relative low decomposition of organic matter in these predominantly water logged ecosystems. Hydrological conditions play thus a fundamental role in peatlands and the feedback of carbon cycling in these ecosystems in response to climate change is under debate. Peatlands are important CO2 sinks but also constitute global sources of CH4. The atmospheric exchange and production rates of these greenhouse gases are strongly influenced by the hydrological regime. An increased frequency of extreme meteorological conditions resulting in drying and flooding events is predicted to occur in the future. The major issue regarding the climate change debate at the global scale is how rapid these greenhouse gases are being released to the atmosphere. Despite the general consensus regarding the broad effects of drying and flooding on CO2 and CH4 exchange, belowground processes producing such greenhouse gases and their response to water table dynamics is underrepresented and usually simplified or overgeneralized. Temperature, moisture, oxygen content and nutrient content are among the major environmental controls for organic matter decomposition rates in peat soils. Another important and intrinsic control is peat quality or humification degree of organic matter. The interrelation and relevance of all these factors vary among sites and with hydrological condition in a temporal and spatial scale. This work presents investigations focusing on belowground redox processes aiming to witness the dynamic interrelation of soil physical and chemical (soil gas and pore water chemistry) variables, and evaluates the relevance of some controls of organic matter decomposition during a wide range of hydrological conditions. Most of this work shows information under in situ conditions and complementary laboratory experiments were performed minding the in situ observations. The findings contribute to general knowledge by providing raw data in fen peats under fluctuating and contrasting water table conditions in a relatively high spatiotemporal resolved scale. Dryings led to increased air filled porosity, O2 intrusion, CO2 degassing, inhibition of methanogenesis and renewal of electron acceptors. The opposite trend occurred upon rewetting with pulses of iron and sulphate reduction and delayed methane production to a variable extent. Upon flooding, continued anaerobic conditions stimulated the accumulation of reduced products, methanogenic precursors (acetate and hydrogen) and CH4. The general assumption that the water table directly controls the oxygen content in peat was relativized. This work shows that such relation is greatly influenced by peat physical properties, which partially control the changes in moisture. Based on these findings, the mineral content and the degree of compaction in organic soils can be implemented to more accurately represent the dynamics of aeration in peats upon water table changes. Another general assumption is that drying events, i.e. temporary decline of water table below mean position, lead to increased CO2 production and emission from peat soils to the atmosphere. Such statement was also relativized and must account for the depth distribution of respiration rates in relation to the mean water table of the peat deposit. Based on these findings, the high relative contribution of upper peat layers already exposed above the water table mask the effects of increased CO2 production in deeper peat upon water table drop. Additionally, the role of moisture was shown to be little for aerobic respiration. This work also evaluates the importance of drought severity by accounting for the post drought effects on methane production. More intense and prolonged drying events led to a greater regeneration of electron acceptors in peat soil, which broadly suppressed or limited methane production upon rewetting. This relation was not simple and several factors such as water table position, post drought water table fluctuations, temperature and organic matter content contributed to the recovery of methane production after drying. The provision of substrates by fermentation processes limited peat respiration during shallow water table and drying. In contrast, accumulation of acetate and hydrogen was observed during flooding indicating a decoupling of fermentation from terminal metabolism and favouring the co-occurrence of iron reduction, sulphate reduction and methanogenesis.

The peptidyl-prolyl isomerase Pin1 is required for maintenance of the spindle assembly checkpoint (2012)

Andreas Brown

Chromosomes are replicated during S-phase and segregated during M-phase of the eukaryotic cell cycle. The two sister chromatids of each duplicated chromosome are topologically entrapped and, thus, paired by the ring-shaped protein complex cohesin. They are separated in anaphase of mitosis when cohesin is endoproteolytically cleaved by separase. Activation of this giant protease requires the degradation of its two inhibitors, securin and cyclin B1, which is mediated by the anaphase promoting complex or cyclosome (APC/C), a multisubunit ubiquitin ligase, in conjunction with its essential co-activator Cdc20. The spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) is a surveillance mechanism that monitors the chromosomes' interactions with the microtubules of the mitotic spindle apparatus. In response to even one erroneous attachment the affected kinetochore emits a "wait anaphase" signal, which is amplified and culminates in the quantitative sequestration of Cdc20 by the SAC components Mad2 and BubR1. The consequent inactivation of the APC/C causes a metaphase arrest and gives the cell time to correct the error. Given its great importance for chromosome segregation fidelity, it comes at no surprise that loss of the SAC causes cell death while its curtailing is associated with tumour formation. Pin1 is a peptidyl-prolyl-isomerase with strong preference for phosphorylated Ser-Pro or Thr-Pro motives within its protein substrates. In the present thesis, evidence for the involvement of Pin1 in the maintenance of a robust SAC response is presented. Antibodies against Pin1 were raised and used to establish the effective immunodepletion of Pin1 from extracts of Xenopus laevis eggs. While the SAC could readily be activated in mock-treated samples of this cell free system, securin was degraded despite the presence of unattached kinetochores when Pin1 had previously been removed. Proving the specificity of this effect, a SAC mediated arrest could be rescued by adding back recombinant Pin1 to depleted extracts. Similarly, addition of dominant negative but not of wild-type Pin1 to SAC-arrested extracts resulted in a checkpoint override. Chemical inhibition of human Pin1 with two different molecules in two different cancer cells lines invariably forced the cells to exit mitosis in the absence of spindles. This resulted in the premature disappearance of securin, cyclin B1 and a mitosis-specific phosphorylation on Ser10 of histone H3. Thus, Pin1's role as a checkpoint component is conserved in mammals. In search for the relevant target, Cdc20 was identified as a novel interaction partner of vertebrate Pin1. This association requires phosphorylation of Cdc20 on Ser-Pro/Thr-Pro sites and occurs only during mitosis. Importantly, the Pin1-Cdc20 interaction is direct and not bridged via another checkpoint component or a subunit of the core APC/C. The experimental data suggest that Pin1-dependent isomerization of Cdc20 might bias it to preferentially associate with Mad2 and BubR1 instead of APC/C. Taken together, these findings contribute to a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in SAC signalling and unravel a previously unappreciated role of Pin1 for genome integrity.

Mineral sequestration of CO2 by reaction with alkaline residues (2012)

Martin Back

With the onset of industrialization within the last 150 years, a significant increase in the concentration of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2) is recorded in the atmosphere. According to current scientific understanding the rising atmospheric CO2 levels can be linked with high probability to the observed phenomenon of global warming. Consequently, the reduction of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions has become a global challenge of environmental research and policy. In this thesis, a novel approach to achieve a long-term mineral sequestration of CO2 was studied, using alkaline residue materials. This study examined for the first time a process that allows for rapid removal of CO2 from flue gas through reaction with lignite fly ashes in aqueous solution. In this process the basicity of the residues is utilized for mineral trapping of CO2 by precipitating stable calcite. Lignite fly ashes are a cheap, inexpensive, highly reactive byproduct of coal combustion. Due to the exposure to heat, these waste streams generally contain high amounts of reactive Ca/Mg (hydr)oxides and thus offer a high alkalinity. The alkaline residues were therefore not considered as an environmental problem, but rather as useful reactants for technical CO2 neutralization in the context of combustion processes. Carbonates are end-products of weathering processes at the earth surface and mineral carbonation is thus assessed to be a permanent and safe storage option of CO2. Compared to alternative forms of carbon storage (e.g. the injection into gas reservoirs) cost-intensive monitoring programs for safety reasons can be omitted. Also, the carbonation generally leads to heavy metal fixation in the residues, allowing for an environmentally less problematic disposal of the products or even their industrial re-use (e.g. road construction, cement industry). Due to the common high reactivity of alkaline fly ashes no pre-treatment (e.g. grinding, using chemical additives) is needed compared to the use of natural silicate minerals as feedstock material. For these reasons mineral carbonation of alkaline residues can be considered as a process with low costs and low energy consumption, thus making it an interesting CO2 reduction pathway from an economical point of view. In Chapter 1, the mechanisms and rates of reactions between alkaline lignite fly ash and CO2 in aqueous suspensions were evaluated. Aqueous laboratory experiments showed that CO2 from flue gas can be bound directly as carbonate. Additionally, solutions with high dissolved inorganic carbon content are formed, which can be injected into aquifers for mineral CO2 sequestration. As the dissolution rates of the alkaline mineral phases are high, gas phase CO2 transfer into the aqueous phase is mostly the limiting factor for the overall carbonation process. CO2 dissolution is controlled by the solution pH, by the available surface area of the gas/water interface and by the gradient at that interface. The maximum conversion of 5.2 moles of CO2 per kg fly ash (≈ 0.23 kg kg-1) obtained at 75 °C demonstrates the high potential of alkaline fly ashes to sequester CO2. This value accounts for a CO2 sequestration capacity of nearly 3.5 million t of CO2 in Germany alone based on the available lignite fly ash, which corresponds to 2 percents of the CO2 emissions from lignite power combustion (168 million t a-1 in 2009). In Chapter 2, laboratory carbonation experiments are described, which were carried out with the individual mineral phases CaO and MgO in aqueous solution. The process showed parallels with the reactions observed during carbonation of lignite fly ashes, suggesting that Ca and Mg (hydr)oxides can be used as proxies to estimate alkaline waste reaction with CO2 in general. The carbonation of CaO happens fast, occurs at high pH values > 12 and is controlled at the mineral surface by the dissolution of Ca(OH)2. As long as Ca(OH)2 is available CO2 uptake by the system is high and leads to the simultaneous precipitation of calcite (CaCO3). Under similar conditions MgO carbonation is a slower and much more complex process. In the presence of MgO an initial pH of ~ 10.8, indicating solubility equilibrium, was reached. Subsequently, TDIC concentrations and EC increased almost linearly. The pool of MgO based alkalinity can be made available for mineral trapping if the kinetic restrictions for precipitation of Mg-carbonate can be overcome, e. g. by running the processes at higher temperature (> 50 °C) and higher s/l-ratio. Corresponding to related work the precipitation of hydromagnesite (Mg5(CO3)4 (OH)2 ∙ 4H2O) is found for temperatures above 50 ° C already at a suspended amount of 4 g L-1. Precipitation of nesquehonite (MgCO3 ∙ 3H2O)) starts upon a suspended amount of MgO of more than 10 g L-1 at 25 ° C. In Chapter 3 the setup and the results of a model are shown, which was used to simulate and evaluate the process of alkaline material carbonation over time. Experimentally derived specific dissolution rates for CaO/MgO and CO2 are used for the development of a kinetic geochemical model based on the freely available PHREEQC algorithm. The software offers the access to databases, which containing thermodynamic constants of all common dissolved species in natural and industrial processes. Experimental assays conducted in an aqueous carbonation reactor (see Chapter 1 and 2) were used as reference to test the model and evaluate its robustness and sensitivity. The reaction course of the experiments based on the use of the pure phases (CaO and MgO) was successfully reproduced by our simulations. The developed model may thus be used as a valuable tool for the optimization of technical scenarios/facilities for CO2 sequestration. In order to study different mineral sequestration scenarios for calcite precipitation, we used the simulation to test the variation of process parameters and the addition of chemical additives (CaCl2, CaSO4). Finally, the simulation of the carbonation of lignite fly ash was tested using our simplified model based on CaO, MgO, calcite, anhydrite as kinetic reactants. It was shown that advanced techniques to determine the exact mineralogy of combustion residues and the extension of the availability of thermodynamic data of specific mineral phases are necessary to improve geochemical modelling in future work. In Chapter 4, the potential contribution of lignite fly ash to mineral CO2 trapping in a high anhydrite (CaSO4) containing aquifer were analyzed. The study examined the possibility of combining underground CO2 storage and geothermal heat/energy production from an anhydrite rich aquifer. In such a scenario Ca2+ for the precipitation of calcite could be provided from the dissolution of the calcium sulfate. The dissolution of anhydrite concurrently releases acid, being counterproductive with respect to the formation of carbonates. The possibility of pH buffering by the addition of alkaline lignite fly ash is therefore appraised to optimize the conditions of carbonate precipitation. The performed laboratory experiments, as basis for thermodynamic simulations with PHREEC, confirmed that the buffering capacity derived from the fly ashes is essential for calcite precipitation in such a system. Already with an addition of 0.1 weight percent of fly ash per volume of the injection solution the amount of precipitated calcite was maximized. The dissolution of anhydrite is associated with a concurrent increase in pore space and can balance the porespace reduction by precipitation of carbonates and secondary silicates in the geothermal reservoir.

Impact of Oxygen and Pesticides on Microbial Cellulose Degradation in Aerated Agricultural Soils: A Microscaled Analysis of Processes and Prokaryotic Populations (2011)

Stefanie Schellenberger

The polysaccharide cellulose is a major component of organic matter in terrestrial ecosystems and its mineralization drives carbon fluxes in soil. The degradation of plant-derived saccharides (e.g., cellulose, cellobiose, and glucose) is catalysed by a huge diversity of aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms (including Bacteria, fungi, and protists), but there is limited information about their phylogenetic identities and their in situ relevance in soil. Soil is a heterogeneous habitat in which oxic and anoxic microzones co-occur, and in which the distribution of O2 can change rapidly. Hence, the availability of O2 is an important factor that determines the activity of the saccharide-degrading community in microzones of aerated soil. Likewise, the accumulation of potential toxic pesticides in agricultural ecosystems might influence microbial activity. It is not resolved how active cellulolytic and saccharolytic taxa respond to rapid changes in the availabilities of O2. Furthermore, it is unclear if pesticides impact on the degradation of cellulose and cellulose-linked processes, and influence the activity of active saccharide-utilizing microorganisms. Hence, this study first identified cellulolytic and saccharolytic aerobic and anaerobic Prokaryotes that catalyzed the degradation of supplemented [13C]-labeled saccharides by 16S rRNA stable isotope probing. The metabolic response of major bacterial taxa to pesticides and fluctuating availabilities of O2 was further analyzed with taxon-specific qPCR assays. Eukaryotes that contributed to soil carbon flux were identified by targeting 18S rRNA genes by the collaborative group of Dr. A. Chatzinotas at the Helmholtz Centre (UFZ) in Leipzig. Cellulose, cellobiose, and glucose were mineralized to carbon dioxide under oxic conditions, whereas different fermentation products accumulated under anoxic conditions. Fermentations occurred concomitant with the apparent reduction of nitrate and ferric iron. The degradation of supplemented saccharides was stable under oxic and anoxic conditions. Archaea were no active constituents of the cellulose-degrading community in the investigated soil. [13C]-cellulose was mainly degraded by Kineosporiaceae (Actinobacteria), the cellulolytic taxon Cluster III Clostridiaceae (Firmicutes), and the new family-level taxon 'Cellu1-3' (Bacteroidetes) under anoxic conditions. Under oxic conditions, the new family-level taxa 'Sphingo1-4' (Bacteroidetes) and 'Deha1' (Chloroflexi), and Planctomycetaceae (Planctomycetes) were involved. Active community members in [13C]-cellobiose and [13C]-glucose treatments differed from those in [13C]-cellulose treatments, and were selectively activated by O2. Twenty-eight of the 48 labeled bacterial family-level taxa did not closely affiliate with cultured species. Labeled Eukaryotes belonged to the families Bodonidae, Eustigmataceae, Mallomonadaceae, Opistonectidae, unclassified Chrysophyceae, and unclassified Stramenopiles. These families inhabit autotrophic algae and bacteriovorus flagellates. It is likely that these active Eukaryotes were labeled by incorporation of [13C]-carbon derived from grazing on active cellulolytic and saccharolytic soil bacteria. Fungi were not labeled in stable isotope probing experiments. The pesticides Bentazon, MCPA and Nonylphenol impaired cellulose-linked microbial processes only at pesticide concentrations far above the recommended rate. The impairment was most pronounced under anoxic conditions. Planctomycetaceae and the new family-level taxon 'Sphingo1-4' were sensitive to pesticide addition under oxic conditions, whereas Cluster I Clostridiaceae and the new family-level taxon 'Cellu1-3' were reduced under anoxic conditions. Nevertheless, the impact of pesticides on the degradation of saccharides at in situ-relevant concentrations seems to be minimal. These collective findings suggest that (i) a large uncultured diversity of Bacteria was involved in the degradation of cellulose, (ii) O2 selectively activates different cellulolytic and saccharolytic taxa, (iii) Cluster III Clostridiaceae, and the new family-level taxa 'Sphingo1-4' and 'Cellu1-3' represent the major cellulolytic constituents of the microbial community in the investigated agricultural soil, whereas Cluster I Clostridiaceae, Intrasporangiaceae and Micrococcaceae are saccharolytic satellite organisms that utilize cellulose-derived carbon, and (iv) the degradation of plant-derived saccharides is a community function that is stabilized by the rapid response of active bacterial taxa and independent of fluctuating availabilities of O2 and of pesticide application.

Identification of substrate proteins of FtsH during sporulation of Bacillus subtilis (2012)

Hue Bach Thi Nguyen

FtsH is an ATP- and Zn2+-dependent metalloprotease anchored in the cytoplasmic membrane by two transmembrane segments. It is the unique membrane-bound AAA-protease in bacteria that performs a variety of regulatory functions. In B. subtilis, an ftsH knockout exhibits a pleiotropic phenotype such as filamentous growth, sensitivity towards heat, osmotic shock and cells are unable to sporulate. Recently, it has been shown that ftsH knockout cells fail to entry sporulation stage II due to lack of a sufficient amount of Spo0A~P and the first substrate of FtsH identified in B. subtilis is the Spo0E phosphatase, a negative regulator that dephosphorylates Spo0A~P. However, the sporulation frequency in a spo0E ftsH double mutant strain was only partly restored, we hypothesized that FtsH might degrade additional substrate proteins involved in sporulation. To identify these proteins, two different strategies were applied. By using the 2D gel technique, the proteomes of an ftsH wild-type strain was compared with an ftsH null mutant. Several proteins were identified to be either up- or down-regulated in the absence of FtsH. One of them up-regulated about 4-fold was identified as Spo0M. Since ftsH did not interfere with transcription of spo0M, an in vitro proteolysis assay was established using purified components. It was shown that Spo0M was degraded by FtsH in an ATP- and time-dependent way. In the second strategy, an ftsHtrap mutant was constructed and tested for loss of its proteolytic activity. Protease trap mutants are still able to bind substrate proteins, but are unable to degrade them. By using FtsHtrap fused to a GST-tag, YwnF, a membrane protein, was trapped and identified as a substrate of FtsH by mass spectrometry. However, further experiments will be required to confirm YwnF as a target of FtsH. The last part of this thesis was focused on the eag gene, which forms a bicistronic operon with Spo0E. Construction and analysis of an eag insertion mutant exhibited a slight increase in the sporulation frequency and in the amount of Spo0A. A transcriptional fusion between the promoter of the spo0E-eag operon and the lacZ reporter gene revealed an increase in the beta-galactosidase activity from t0 when the cells were grown in sporulation medium. Since the Eag protein may be an integral membrane protein, it may bind excess Spo0E thereby preventing it from dephosphorylating Spo0A~P. Alternatively, Eag may bind Spo0E and present it as a modulator to FtsH for degradation.

Molecular detection and identification of phytoplasmas in sugarcane in Hawaii, Thailand, Cuba and Near East (2012)

Ziad Soufi

The Yellow leaf syndrome (YLS) had been first detected and described in Hawaiian sugarcane plantations. The polerovirus Sugarcane yellow leaf virus was identified as a causal agent of the syndrome; however there was no strict correlation between the degree of symptom expression and the virus titre. Therefore several surveys on breeding station sugarcane plants in Hawaiian Islands were done for Sugarcane yellow leaf phytoplasma (SCYLP), a bacterium which had been hypothesized to be also a causal agent of YLS. Two types of phytoplasmas were found in Hawaiian sugarcane cultivars mainly sugarcane white leaf phytoplasma (SCWL) which is a member in rice yellow dwarf group, in addition to aster yellows group. This was also true for sugarcane plants from Hawaiian plantations, which routinely use hot water-treatment for the seed cane cuttings. Sugarcane samples were obtained also from other countries including Cuba, Egypt, Syria and Thailand where sugarcane plants are also showing symptoms of yellowing or whiting. Aster yellows and X-disease phytoplasmas were found in Cuban cultivars whereas one sugarcane cultivar from Egypt contains grassy shoot phytoplasma that is a member in rice yellow dwarf group, but the other two Egyptian ones were phytoplasma-free. Syrian sugarcane was infected by phytoplasma that identified preliminary in rice yellow dwarf group. To our knowledge, this is the first report for the detection and identification of phytoplasma in sugarcane plants from Hawaii, Egypt and Syria. Our investigation on Thai sugarcane plants was in agreement with previous literature where sugarcane white leaf (SCWL) phytoplasma is associated with white leaf disease (Nakashima et al., 1994; Wongkaew et al., 1997). Q-PCR (real-time PCR) offers the opportunity to detect the phytoplasma in a sensitive, specific and quick manner, but that is not true for sugarcane plants with a very low titer of phytoplasma. Therefore, nested-PCR is better than qPCR for low titer phytoplasma detection and that is true for sugarcane yellow leaf phytoplasma disease. A BLAST search for the 16S rRNA gene sequences reported in this study showed that they shared 99 to 100% sequence identity with those of other phytoplasmas in the Aster yellows, X-disease and Rice yellow dwarf groups. However, no one of these identified strains can be described as a new “Candidatus Phytoplasma species”. On the other hand, Hawaiian sugarcane cultivar H78-7750 as a representative of Hawaiian breeding station sugarcane contains phytoplasma clustered to strain sugarcane white leaf (SCWL) phytoplasma, closely together with sugarcane white leaf phytoplasma from Taiwan (AY139874). It is possible to explain the occurrence of (SCWL) phytoplasma in Hawaiian Islands, by insect vectors or by infected stem cuttings which were obtained from other countries. Thai sugarcane contains phytoplasma isolate closely together with sugarcane white leaf phytoplasma from Myanmar. The transmission electron microscopic (TEM) studies revealed the presence of sugarcane white leaf phytoplasma only in phloem sieve tubes of diseased sugarcane leaves but not in adjacent cells to the sieve elements including companion cells and phloem parenchyma as well. According to ultrastructural observations under TEM, parenchymatic cells of bundle sheath and mesophyll tissue of affected leaves showed some alterations including accumulations of starch granules, increase plastoglobuli number and size in disorganized chloroplasts. Insect vectors of phytoplasmas are phloem feeders. Thus far, none of aphid species has been found to be a vector of phytoplasmas. Our tests showed also that black sugarcane aphids (Melanaphis Sacchari) were unable to transmit the phytoplasmas from infected sugarcane into the phytoplasma-free one. Hot water treatment has been proposed to cure plant material from phytoplasmas. Our tests showed that the appropriate hot water treatment, which recommended for phytoplasma elimination, is immersion of the sugarcane stem cuttings at 50°C for 60 min.

Analysis of the "nurse-tree effect" of exotic shelter trees on the growth of the indigenous Podocarpus falcatus in an Ethiopian montane forest (2011)

Simone Strobl

Ethiopian forests disappear with a rate of 1.1% per year due to the high demand of firewood and timber. To protect the remaining parts of the forests, exotic tree plantations were established 60 years ago. But there are considerable concerns regarding exotic plantations: they have the reputation to cause damage to the ecosystems due to high demand of water and nutrients. Considering the environmental deterioration caused by monotonous plantations of exotic tree species, the chance for indigenous woody plants to rejuvenate naturally in those plantations appears to be very small. But there are observations of indigenous tree species regenerating under the shelter of exotic tree plantations. This enhanced growth of indigenous saplings under the canopy of exotics has been termed “nurse-tree effect”. In the Munessa-Shashamene Forest, a tropical montane forest in Ethiopia consisting of plantations of exotic tree species and remnants of natural forest, regeneration and an enhanced growth of native Podocarpus falcatus saplings under the shelter of exotic tree plantations (Pinus and Eucalyptus) was observed. The focus of this work was to examine the different growth patterns of the saplings in the sites, the effects of the on the photosynthetic performance, and to compare the water relations of the Podocarpus saplings and those of the shelter-trees. The results of the study are summarized as follows: 1. Observations over two years showed that the relative growth rates of the saplings were more than three times higher in the Pinus plantation compared to the natural forest and the Eucalyptus plantation. Relative growth rates during the dry and the rainy season were more or less identical. 2. Investigation of the sub-canopy microclimate proved PAR and VPD as major components with impact on the photosynthetic performance of the saplings. 71% of the variations in photosynthetic carbon uptake could be explained by PAR and 4% by VPD. The Pinus plantation was slightly warmer and drier compared to the other two sites. Also highest PAR values of all sites were recorded in the Pinus plantation. In the Eucalyptus plantation, PAR values were the lowest of the three sites, caused by the two-tired canopy of coppiced and uncoppiced Eucalyptus trees. 3. For an assessment of the photosynthetic efficiency of the light climate, the efficacy of the shares of the irradiation from diffuse light and light flecks were determined from light curves. The time spans and distribution of these shares of the daily accumulated radiation were recorded from the daily courses. In the Pinus plantation, the efficiency of the radiation was relatively low (70%), because of the high intensity of the sunflecks, especially during the dry season. On cloudy days the efficiency was nearly 100% and resulted in an optimum photosynthetic performance of the saplings in the Pinus plantation. In the Eucalyptus plantation, the two-tired canopy resulted in a higher proportion of diffuse radiation and less daily accumulated PAR from sunflecks (46%). Also the efficiency of the actual radiation was the lowest of all sites on cloudy (72%) and sunny (53%) days. Daily accumulated PAR under the canopy of the natural forest was in between the other forest types. Such mid-position was also true for the share of the sunflecks and the CO2 uptake. Efficacy of the radiation was 80% on sunny and 86% on cloudy days. 4. Water relations can substantially affect the photosynthetic performance of plants. Especially in the afternoons of the dry season a decrease of photosynthetic CO2 uptake by the Podocarpus saplings became apparent. Whole-tree water consumption was determined by measuring sap flow with the Granier system. In principle sap flow (and transpiration) followed VPD. Comparison of the daily courses of transpiration and stomatal conductance and sap flow showed an earlier decrease of transpiration by the leaves of the saplings than by the shelter-trees, suggesting slight water shortage especially during the dry season. This interpretation is corroborated by the higher 13C values in the leaf tissue of the saplings from the Pinus plantation. Nevertheless severe drought stress did not occur during the two years of investigation. 5. The literature on the „nurse-tree effect“ mentions in particular Eucalyptus as shelter-tree, a finding which is not in agreement with the data of this study: Neither photosynthesis nor growth was enhanced compared with the control saplings in the natural forest. The discrepancy between this work and the literature can be solved when the management of the Eucalyptus plantation is considered. As long as the Podocarpus saplings grow under the two-tired canopy of the coppiced trees, growth is as slow as in the natural forest. However, after coppicing the light climate for the saplings ameliorates considerably and growth rates increase. Thus, a shelter-tree effect could also be observed under Eucalyptus, but its dynamics is stepwise rather than continuous.

Climate change impacts on habitats and biodiversity :  From environmental envelope modelling to nature conservation strategies (2011)

Torsten Bittner

Climate change will pose entirely new challenges for nature conservation. A literature study of 852 publications (between 2003 and 2010) illuminates this topic, examines driving research forces as well as focal points and shows recent research gaps. Here could be shown that changes in species distribution, diverse consequences for habitats, changing communities as well as biotic interactions and general aspects of diversity are the major challenges. The potential climatic modifications can alter deeply the distribution of animals and plants. Range changes due to recent climate change already exist and are traceable. In order to quantify such changes, environmental envelope modelling can be used. In addition to individual species, changes in distribution of more complex units are also conceivable. The present work mainly focuses on habitat types listed in the Annex I of the European Habitats Directive. To reveal the potential range changes of habitat types, two principally different modelling approaches have been developed. An indirect approach modelling the distribution of a habitat type using the distribution of its characteristic plant species and a direct approach, using the distribution of the habitat type itself. These two approaches were tested by modelling five grassland habitat types. Looking at the modelled results all habitats are projected to lose between 22% and 93% of their range in the ‘no dispersal’ scenario. Both approaches produce reasonable results. However, modelling an extensive set of habitat types using the indirect approach is currently not possible, because of the required but actually lacking amount of plant distribution data. Therefore, the direct approach is an appropriate instrument for modelling habitat types. Here, all 127 widespread terrestrial habitat types defined in the Annex I of the Habitats Directive were modelled and, resulting from this, a map of terrestrial habitat type diversity was calculated. Several habitat types are projected to lose many of their actually suitable areas, in particular bogs, rocky habitats, grassland and in part forests. Due to their developmental time or rather due to their special abiotic requirements, bogs and rocky habitats even lose under the assumption of a full dispersal scenario. However, most heath and grassland habitats are also projected to lose in the full dispersal scenario. Pooling all modelled results together, terrestrial habitat type diversity is shifting partly to mountain regions and the atlantic biogeographical region is projected to decrease in habitat type diversity. According to the Habitats Directive habitat types listed in Annex I are protected in ‘sites of community interest’ aiming to maintain or restore them at a favourable conservation status. Due to the projected changes a static nature conservation concept could face problems which particularly concern the coherence of the protected area network. This could lead to a loss of protective goods in spite of protected areas. To illustrate the potential problems and difficulties emerging with respect to spatial coherence of habitat types between protected areas, an analysis of spatial coherence under future conditions for a variety of habitat types in Germany was conducted. Here, a combination of environmental envelope modelling and graph theory is presented to assess the coherence of nature conservation networks. The possible incapacity of species to reach all climatically suitable areas is currently debated. Therefore, spatial scales are not only crucial for the coherence of protected areas but also for the question if future projected suitable areas could be colonized. Dispersal movements of species are only infrequently possible in our highly fragmented landscape. To answer this raising question, Odonata listed in the Habitats Directive with known dispersal distances were contemplated. The species Coenagrion ornatum, C. mercuriale and Ophiogomphus cecilia are projected to lose range when incorporating specific dispersal distances, while they are projected to extend their range in the unrestricted dispersal scenario. Furthermore, suitable climatic conditions tend to decline for Leucorrhinia albifrons and L. caudalis, whereas L. pectoralis is projected to gain distribution area assuming either species-specific or unrestricted dispersal. The nature conservation measure of translocation is an at least 100 years old methodology with pros and cons. In this thesis, the emerging problems and opportunities of this species preservation strategy are presented. Further, a new question about the ‘focal unit’ is pointed out as well as the problem of genetic variability and the aspect of pre-adopted subspecies. Moreover, a selective assisted colonisation not by moving species but ecotypes is referred.

Integrated analysis of relationships between 3D-structure, leaf photosynthesis, and branch transpiration of mature Fagus sylvatica and Quercus petraea trees in a mixed forest stand (2001)

Stefan Fleck

Identifying the relevance of forest structure for stand photosynthesis and transpiration is one of the remaining challenges in plant physiological ecology. This thesis uses the historically new chances for the description of 3D-complexity of beech and oak forests that come along with the rapid developments in information technology: It gives a comprehensive description of measured structural features of both species and evaluates and visualizes them with a branch-oriented polyhedra-based 3D-representation (CRISTO). This allows for the first time the proof of a naturally layered structure of Fagus sylvatica and Quercus petraea canopies, as well as the quantification of gap volumes of horizontal layers. The structure description is combined with the measured variability of physiologically relevant leaf parameters throughout the single canopies. A historical trend towards increasing leaf mass per area (LMA)-values is detected from literature. Using LMA and nitrogen content as drivers, a new nitrogen dependent leaf photosynthesis model is designed and validated from A/Ci curves and daily courses of leaf photosynthesis. These measurements have been perormed on standing trees using a high-lift. The program RACCIA allows for the automated derivation of photosynthesis parameters for this model from A/Ci-curves. Leaf properties and 3D-structure are used in the 3D-light model STANDFLUX-SECTORS, which is capble to use a 3D-simulation of the same stand in an unprecedented high resolution and was validated with the LMA-light relationship from another stand. The combined evaluation of the simulated radiation distribution with sapflow measurements on single branches indicates a typical pattern of light sensitivity of transpiration that is interpreted in terms of species-specific ecological specialization.

Eukaryotic chromosome segregation: New aspects of separase regulation by securin, Cdk1, PP2A and auto-cleavage (2011)

Franziska Böttger

The universal triggering event of eukaryotic chromosome segregation is the proteolytic cleavage of chromosomal cohesin by separase. The activity of this essential but potentially also very dangerous protease must be tightly controlled. Prior to the onset of anaphase separase is kept inactive by association with either securin or cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (Cdk1) in conjunction with cyclin B1. Only when all chromosomes interact properly with the mitotic spindle apparatus does the anaphase promoting complex or cyclosome (APC/C), a multisubunit E3 ligase, mediate the ubiquitylation of securin and cyclin B1. Their subsequent proteasomal degradation then releases active separase. Murine embryonic stem cells, which lack securin and express a Cdk1-resistant phosphorylation site mutant separase are viable. Thus, additional regulations of sister chromatid separation by separase must exist. It was reported that human separase cleaves not only cohesin but also itself and, furthermore, that it interacts with protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A). However, the functions of separase's auto-cleavage and PP2A-interaction remain enigmatic. Moreover, securin was reported to also interact with PP2A but, strangely, with a different isoform of the phosphatase. Thus, the question needs clarification of whether separase or securin or both interact with which isoform of PP2A. In this study, further insights into the relationship between separase auto-cleavage and PP2A binding are presented. Phosphorylation of a serine residue in close proximity to the major cleavage site of separase was found to stimulate auto-cleavage of separase. Interestingly, a quantitative mass-spectrometric approach (SILAC) identified this serine residue as a substrate of separase-bound PP2A. Furthermore, a point mutation within separase was identified, which totally abolishes PP2A binding and which maps to the immediate vicinity of the auto-cleavage sites. Thus, PP2A prevents the auto-cleavage of separase both catalytically and sterically. It could further be shown that non-cleavable separase exhibits increased association with PP2A and that forced cleavage of separase displaces PP2A. Taken together, these results demonstrate that auto-cleavage and PP2A binding constitute two antagonistic mechanisms of separase regulation. Evidence is provided that the interaction of PP2A with securin is indirect and bridged by separase, and that it is the B56- and not the B55-isoform of PP2A which associates with the separase-securin complex. Moreover, free securin is shown to be degraded in early mitosis in a phosphorylation- and APC/C-dependent manner, while separase-associated securin is kept dephosphorylated and, thus, protected by PP2A. Securin levels are frequently increased in tumors. In normal cells, the early removal of excessive securin might later ensure swift separase activation and anaphase onset, thereby contributing to faithful chromosome segregation.

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